Oxford and Its Story By Cecil Headlam, M.A

Cecil Headlam’s 1904 book, “Oxford and its Story,” presenting a comprehensive, narrative history of the city and University of Oxford. The author acknowledges using numerous historical sources, including volumes from the Oxford Historical Society and various monographs, to arrange his detailed account. The content spans from Oxford’s legendary founding and Anglo-Saxon era through the Norman Conquest and medieval development, focusing heavily on the architectural, social, and political evolution of the city and its relationship with the developing University, including conflicts between the scholars and townsfolk. Furthermore, the excerpts extensively cover academic life, religious upheavals (such as the Reformation and the Lollard movement), and the city’s role during the English Civil War, detailing the customs, buildings, and notable figures associated with Oxford’s centuries of existence.

Who May Benefit from the Book

• Students of architectural and intellectual history.
• Visitors planning comprehensive tours of Oxford.
• Readers interested in medieval European University models.
• Scholars studying English political and religious reformations.
• Anyone seeking a synthesis of English municipal and academic development.

Top 3 Key Insights

1. Oxford’s history mirrors England’s, tracing its evolution from a strategic border town to a Royalist capital and intellectual center through major national upheavals.
2. The University emerged suddenly after 1167 through a migration of masters from Paris, gaining unique autonomy by being neither a capital nor a See-town.
3. The collegiate system, modeled first by Merton College, was a necessary secular countermeasure to the influence and eventual corruption of the Mendicant Friars.

4 More Lessons and Takeaways

1. Violent conflict between “Town and Gown” (citizens and scholars) was chronic, peaking dramatically during the S. Scholastica’s Day riot (1355), which ultimately increased University privilege.
2. Key benefactions, such as the establishment of the Bodleian Library by Thomas Bodley, ensured Oxford’s preeminence as the first public library in Europe after the medieval collections were destroyed.
3. The city served as a primary arena for intellectual battles, moving from the subtlety of Scholasticism (Duns Scotus) to the challenges of Humanism (Erasmus) and Reformation theology (Wycliffe, Cranmer).
4. Architecture consistently served as a reflection of institutional purpose, from the fortified Norman Castle to the symbolic symmetry of Wykeham’s New College and Laud’s High Church structures.

The Book in 1 Sentence

This volume intricately weaves Oxford’s social, political, and architectural story, illustrating how its enduring institutional history intertwines profoundly with that of England.

The Book Summary in 1 Minute

Cecil Headlam chronicles Oxford’s journey from a Mercian border town defined by S. Frideswide’s 8th-century nunnery and D’Oigli’s Norman castle. The intellectual life began in earnest after 1167, when French masters settled here, establishing a Studium Generale. The academic landscape was shaped by the arrival of the mendicant Friars, spurring the development of the unique collegiate system by secular founders like Walter de Merton. Oxford became the epicenter of national religious movements, witnessing the challenges of Wycliffe, the foundation of Wolsey’s Christ Church, and the tragic martyrdoms of Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer. During the Civil War, it served as Charles I.’s loyalist capital. Through all these stages, characterized by fierce “town-vs-gown” conflicts and grand architectural patronage, Oxford solidified its role as an intellectual and political force.

The 1 Completely Unique Aspect

The book is uniquely illustrated with twenty-four lithographs tinted by Fanny Railton and further illustrations by Herbert Railton, enhancing the visual experience of Oxford’s story.

---

Chapter-wise Book Summary

CHAPTER I: S. FRIDESWIDE AND THE CATHEDRAL

“He that hath Oxford seen, for beauty, grace / And healthiness, ne’er saw a better place. / If God Himself on earth abode would make / He Oxford, sure, would for His dwelling take.”

The narrative begins by celebrating Oxford’s beauty, noting that the approach from Headington Hill or by rail reveals a city “beautiful as youth and venerable as age”. The city’s layered history encompasses the Reformation, the Catholic reaction, and the chivalrous Caroline period. The foundational story is tied to S. Frideswide, or Fritheswithe (“the Bond of Peace”), who, around 727 A.D., established a nunnery on a dry gravel bank, marking the site of what would become Christ Church Cathedral. Although the nunnery later became a priory for canons and was restored under Henry I., elements like the Lady Chapel still recall the Saxon saint’s time. The chapter highlights the cathedral’s architectural journey, from its low spire (perhaps the first built in England) to Wolsey’s magnificent, yet unfinished, plans for Cardinal’s College (reflected in Tom Quad and the superb Hall staircase). The complex religious history is dramatically encapsulated by the final resting place of S. Frideswide’s bones, which were intermingled with those of Protestant Catherine Martyr in 1562, following centuries of change.

• Chapter Key Points:
  • Oxford’s oldest origins trace back to S. Frideswide’s 8th-century nunnery.
  • Christ Church Cathedral displays history from Saxon arches to the Norman restoration and Wolsey’s grand design.
  • The mixing of S. Frideswide’s and Catherine Martyr’s bones symbolizes the city’s religious conflicts.

CHAPTER II: THE MOUND, THE CASTLE AND SOME CHURCHES

“There, watching high the least alarms, / The rough, rude fortress gleams afar / Like some bold veteran, grey in arms / And marked with many a seamy scar.”

Chapter II maps the city’s early development around Carfax (Quadrifurcus), the intersection of key roads, where S. Martin’s Church stood as the city’s focal point. The arrival of the Normans saw Robert D’Oigli establish Oxford Castle in 1071 to secure the waterways. The Castle Mound was likely a pre-existing conical Saxon defense. The most thrilling episode associated with the castle is Queen Matilda’s escape from Stephen’s siege in 1142, achieved by stealing out across the snow-covered, frozen river. Oxford’s economy included early river trade (Abingdon Abbot received 100 herrings yearly toll) and a flourishing Jewish community segregated into the Great and Little Jewries. The Jews were eventually banished, their wealth having stoked popular prejudice, but their old burial grounds survive as the Physic Garden. The chapter also recounts the miraculous founding of Osney Abbey after D’Oigli’s wife, Edith, was visited by magpies representing suffering souls in Purgatory. This abbey later boasted two stately towers and exquisite windows, but was ultimately destroyed after Henry VIII. moved the diocese to Christ Church.

• Chapter Key Points:
  • The city was politically defined by the central crossroads at Carfax and fortified by Robert D’Oigli’s Castle.
  • The Jewish community flourished until the 13th century, after which they were expelled from England.
  • Osney Abbey, once magnificent and home to the famous Christ Church bells, was destroyed in the Reformation.

CHAPTER III: THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSITY

“France, the most polite and civilised of all nations, has expelled the foreign students from her borders.”

Headlam dismisses ancient founding myths, such as King Memphric (1009 B.C.) or the persistent (and later forged) claim that King Alfred founded the University. The true genesis lay in the 12th-century intellectual renaissance, where a “Guild of Study” emerged. While earlier lecturers like Robert Pullen were present, Oxford’s growth into a Studium Generale occurred rapidly after 1167. This acceleration was likely caused by Henry II.’s order recalling English scholars from Paris during his conflict with Thomas Becket. Oxford proved ideal for independent scholarly development, being conveniently located yet lacking immediate control by a Bishop or Mayor. This sudden influx meant that by King John’s reign, the academic population was approximately three thousand. A pivotal conflict occurred in 1209 when townspeople murdered a student, leading to the University gaining key protections and the first documented mention of the Chancellorship. The earliest formalized foundation, University College, arose from a legacy left by William, Archdeacon of Durham, in trust for poor masters (c. 1280), establishing the principle of permanent academic endowment.

• Chapter Key Points:
  • The University grew rapidly after English scholars migrated from Paris in the late 12th century.
  • A major town-vs-gown conflict in 1209 resulted in royal recognition of the University’s authority, including the Chancellor.
  • University College, though falsely claiming King Alfred, originated from the endowment of William of Durham.

CHAPTER IV: THE COMING OF THE FRIARS

“Hei mihi! Hei mihi! Fratres! Simplices cœlos penetrant, et literati disputant utrum sit Deus!”

The arrival of the Black (Dominican) and Grey (Franciscan) Friars in the 13th century initially brought immense spiritual and intellectual stimulus. The Franciscans, seeking to toil among the poor in swampy areas like S. Ebbe’s, soon found themselves drawn to learning, attracting great scholars like Robert Grossetete and Roger Bacon. Bacon, spending most of his life in Oxford, became the father of modern scientific inquiry, yet his work exposed him to charges of magic from his own Order, who feared excessive knowledge. The friars’ growing wealth, influence, and demands for special privileges provoked hostility within the University. This antagonism was the direct catalyst for Walter de Merton’s epoch-making foundation of Merton College (1264/1274), explicitly created as a secular institution to counter monastic influence. The Merton model emphasized corporate life and became the definitive blueprint for all subsequent Oxford and Cambridge colleges. Later in this era, John Wycliffe, Master of Balliol, utilized his intellectual standing as a schoolman to launch a devastating attack on the Friars and Papal authority, turning Oxford into the center of the Lollard religious movement.

• Chapter Key Points:
  • The Friars’ pursuit of knowledge produced giants like Roger Bacon, whose scientific research earned him suspicion.
  • Walter de Merton created the collegiate system to foster secular scholarship and protect it from monastic control.
  • Wycliffe used his platform at Balliol to challenge Church doctrine, initiating the Lollard movement and attacking the wealthy Friars.

CHAPTER V: THE MEDIÆVAL STUDENT

“A clerk ther was of Oxenford also, / That unto logik hadde longe ygo…. / Yet hadde he but litel gold in cofre; / But al that he mighte of his freendes hente, / On bokes and on lerninge he it spente.”

Medieval Oxford was defined by the turbulent relationship between “town” (centered at Carfax) and “gown” (centered at S. Mary’s). The streets were crowded with a motley, often armed, mix of students speaking diverse languages and dialects. Life in the numerous halls and hostels was poor, austere, and democratic; students frequently shared rooms and beds, and relied on “chests” for loans against books or daggers. Discipline was relatively lax, and conflicts, particularly between the Northerners and Southerners (factions of students), were common and violent. This hostility culminated in the massive S. Scholastica’s Day riot (1355), which saw townsmen and country-folk invade the city and massacre scholars. The King’s subsequent judgment granted the University sweeping judicial privileges, including the assay of bread and ale, crippling municipal authority. During this lawless period, the collegiate system evolved dramatically: William of Wykeham’s New College (1380-1400) systematized the layout (quadrangle, hall, chapel under one roof) and discipline. Following this model, All Souls’ College (1437) was founded by Archbishop Chichele as a chantry-college for the souls of those slain in the French wars. The era closed with the construction of permanent University structures like the Divinity School and Duke Humphrey’s Library, marking a shift toward monumental architecture.

• Chapter Key Points:
  • Student life was harsh, democratic, highly communal, and characterized by internal factional violence.
  • The S. Scholastica’s Day riot secured the University’s ultimate authority over the town, transforming governance.
  • New College and All Souls’ perfected the collegiate architectural model, paving the way for the Renaissance colleges.

CHAPTER VI: OXFORD AND THE REFORMATION

“Just as Rhodes was once famous for the Colossus, and Caria for the tomb of Mausolus, so the new College at Oxford dedicated to the most profitable literature would be recognised throughout the civilised world as one of the chief ornaments of Britain.”

The arrival of the New Learning, spurred by the fall of Constantinople and the printing press, began to challenge Scholasticism. English scholars like Linacre, Grocyn, and Erasmus brought back Greek and Humanist ideas from Italy, although the movement met fierce opposition from “Trojan” traditionalists. The shift was institutionalized by Richard Foxe, Bishop of Winchester, who founded Corpus Christi College (C.C.C.) in 1517 to champion Greek, Latin, and Hebrew studies (the Bibliotheca trilinguis), prioritizing the classics over schoolmen like Aquinas. Simultaneously, Cardinal Wolsey initiated his spectacularly ambitious foundation, Cardinal’s College (Christ Church), securing its endowment by suppressing numerous smaller monasteries. This project aimed to make Oxford a secular nursery for the New Learning. However, the introduction of Lutheranism by migrating Cambridge scholars signaled profound religious turmoil. Henry VIII.’s demand that the University validate his divorce placed it in a difficult position. After Wolsey’s downfall and the King’s assertion of supremacy, royal visitors purged the University, culminating in the symbolic removal and burning of the works of Duns Scotus—the “funeral of Scotus and Scotists”.

• Chapter Key Points:
  • The Renaissance introduced Humanism and Greek studies, led by figures like Linacre and Erasmus.
  • C.C.C. was founded by Foxe explicitly to promote the New Learning and classical scholarship over medieval theology.
  • Wolsey’s attempt to create a magnificent, secure college (Christ Church) was cut short by his political fall and the subsequent upheaval of the Reformation.

CHAPTER VII: THE OXFORD MARTYRS

‘Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man. We shall this day light such a candle, by God’s grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out.’

Queen Mary’s accession triggered a violent Catholic reaction, leading to the trial and execution of the leaders of the English Reformation. In 1554, Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer were subjected to forced disputations in the Divinity School. Refusing papal authority, Latimer and Ridley were burned at the stake on October 16, 1555. Latimer’s defiant final words promised a “candle… in England, as I trust shall never be put out”. Archbishop Cranmer’s fate was particularly tragic; imprisoned for three years, he initially signed recantations out of weakness. Yet, at his public confession in S. Mary’s Church, he dramatically retracted his submission, denouncing the Pope and extending his “unworthy hand” (the one that signed the recantation) to be consumed first by the flames. Cranmer’s public redemption at the stake made a profound impression on the popular mind, ensuring that Mary’s attempt to restore Catholicism ultimately failed. The establishment of two key colleges, St. John’s (1555) and Trinity (1555), occurred during this period, initially harboring Catholic sympathizers.

• Chapter Key Points:
  • The Marian persecution led to the martyrdoms of Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer in Oxford.
  • Latimer’s final declaration and Cranmer’s dramatic self-immolation solidified Protestant identity in England.
  • The tragic event proved that the Catholic reaction was doomed, appealing to the independent minds of the English populace.

CHAPTER VIII: ELIZABETH, BODLEY AND LAUD

“I tell you, sirs, that I judge no land in England better bestowed than that which is given to our Universities; for by their maintenance our realm shall be well governed when we be dead and rotten….”

Queen Elizabeth restored Protestant order, and her Chancellor, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, mandated subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles at matriculation, making Oxford an exclusively Church of England institution. The intellectual focus of the era centered on the restoration of learning. Thomas Bodley, abandoning his diplomatic career, devoted his resources to restoring the derelict Duke Humphrey’s Library, opening the Bodleian Library in 1603. The library quickly became famous as the first practical public library in Europe. James I.’s visit confirmed its status, though he was known more for his feeble wit than his generosity. Later, William Laud, President of St. John’s and elected Chancellor, worked to enforce High Church Anglicanism, suppressing Puritan activity. Laud’s chancellorship was marked by valuable benefactions: he secured the University the right to print Bibles, endowed the Arabic Professorship, and codified the tangled statutes into the authoritative Laudian Code. By the time Charles I. and Henrietta Maria visited in 1636, Oxford, schooled by Laud, was firmly committed to the doctrines of passive obedience and the Divine Right of Kings, preparing it for its subsequent role in the coming conflict.

• Chapter Key Points:
  • Leicester’s chancellorship ensured Oxford’s loyalty to the Anglican Church via mandatory religious tests.
  • The Bodleian Library was established by Thomas Bodley, restoring scholarship after the destruction of medieval collections.
  • Laud codified the Laudian Statutes and established Oxford as the key stronghold for High Church and Royalist principles.

CHAPTER IX: THE ROYALIST CAPITAL

“Many times my lady Isabella Thynne would make her entry into our grove with a lute or theorbo played before her. I have heard her play on it in the grove myself…”

The University’s commitment to the crown led to its transformation into the Royalist Capital during the Civil War. In late 1642, Charles I., Prince Rupert, and the court established quarters at Christ Church and Merton. Scholars exchanged academic gowns for military coats, assisting in the construction of extensive fortifications, including earthworks running past colleges like Wadham and Merton. This period presented an extraordinary spectacle: a mingling of courtly pomp, poetry, and intellectual inquiry (early members of the Royal Society met here) alongside the hardships of war, with college plate being coined into money at New Inn Hall. Prince Rupert conducted brilliant cavalry actions, such as the raid near Chalgrove Field where John Hampden was mortally wounded. After Charles’s defeat at Naseby and subsequent flight in 1646, Sir Thomas Fairfax besieged the city. Oxford surrendered honorably, with Fairfax ensuring the preservation of the Bodleian and collegiate property. Following the surrender, Parliamentary Visitors were dispatched to purge the Royalist faculty; hundreds of fellows were ejected, though the Visitors simultaneously aimed to establish genuine learning and strict discipline. After the Restoration, the University saw a rise in fashionable students, but also a flourishing of science led by figures like Christopher Wren and Robert Boyle.

• Chapter Key Points:
  • Oxford was the operational capital for Charles I., fortified extensively by scholars and citizens.
  • The war years saw a blend of court gaiety, scientific progress (Royal Society origins), and military setbacks.
  • The University surrendered to Fairfax (1646), followed by the Parliamentary purge and the subsequent return of Royalist/Anglican influence after the Restoration.

CHAPTER X: JACOBITE OXFORD—AND AFTER

“The King to Oxford sent a troop of horse / For Tories own no argument but force; / With equal care to Cambridge books he sent, / For Whigs admit no force but argument.”

The 18th century found Oxford deeply Jacobite (Tory), characterized by unrest and hostility toward the Hanoverian government. Loyalty to James II. was intense, leading to bonfires, toasts drunk kneeling, and open support for the Pretender, resulting in riots and Crown intervention (Major-General Pepper’s dragoons). This period coincided with a profound academic decay; studies stagnated, lectures ceased, and students became “Smarts” or “Bucks,” prioritizing drinking, gambling, and fashionable indolence over scholarship. However, the seeds of revival were sown: the Methodist Movement originated here with the Wesleys and Whitefield, wrestling with the moral decay of the age. The 19th century brought significant reform, starting with the introduction of the Honours Lists (1800), which restored intellectual rigor. This was followed by the Tractarian Movement (Keble, Newman, Pusey) and the influence of John Ruskin and William Morris, who inspired revivals in spirituality, art, and social consciousness. These movements, combined with University Commissions and the Extension movement, led to the modern, nationally integrated University, which finally settled its differences with the City and opened its doors to a wider populace.

• Chapter Key Points:
  • The 18th century was dominated by Jacobite politics and profound academic decline, leading to moral decay among students.
  • Spiritual revival began with the nascent Methodist Movement (Wesleys) in the 1730s.
  • The 19th-century introduction of Honours Lists, Tractarianism, and the artistic influence of Ruskin modernized the University and restored its national significance.

---

Notable Quotes from the Book

1. “To connect events with the traces they have left, to illustrate the buildings of Oxford by her history, and her history by her buildings, has been the ideal which I have set before myself in this book.”
2. “Old as the nation, yet ever new, with all the vitality of each generation’s youth reacting on the sober wisdom of its predecessor, Oxford has passed through all these and many other stages of history…”
3. “The clock… booming his hundred and one strokes, tolling the hundred students of the scholastic establishment and the one ‘outcomer’ of the Thurston foundation, and signalling at the same time to all ‘scholars to repair to their respective colleges and halls’…”
4. “A University, in fact, was a Guild of Study.”
5. “So study, as if you were to live for ever; so live as if you were to die to-morrow.”
6. “The most important schoolmen of the age were all Oxonians, and nearly all the later schoolmen of note were Englishmen or Germans educated in the traditions of the English ‘nation’ at Paris.”
7. “In this foundation Walter De Merton was the first to express the only true idea of a college.”
8. “The whole nation was thus brought into the University by means of the colleges, which fortunately were sufficiently numerous, and no one of them overwhelmingly important.”
9. “The Mountains were in labour once, and forth there came a mouse;— / Your Cardinal a College planned, and built an eating-house!”
10. “The spirit of mediævalism summoned up by Sir Walter, was typified in Oxford architecture by Sir Gilbert Scott and Pugin.”

About the Author

The author of Oxford and Its Story is Cecil Headlam, M.A.. He is also recognized for his detailed works on other historic European centers, including “Nuremberg” and “Chartres”. The book was first published in 1904, with a subsequent cheaper edition in 1912. Headlam dedicated this volume to his Alma Mater, referring to himself as an “unworthy but not ungrateful son” (filius indignus haud ingratus). His goal was to present the comprehensive story of Oxford, recognizing that its architectural, social, political, and mental history deeply “touches the History of England” at many points. Headlam acknowledges gathering his material from extensive sources, including “forty odd volumes of the Oxford Historical Society” and key scholarly monographs. This detailed, synthesizing approach reflects his dedication to providing a holistic historical view of the University, informed by his own personal connection and gratitude to the institution.

How to Get the Most from the Books

Read actively, relating the historical narrative to the architectural features of Oxford’s churches, colleges, and streets to fully appreciate the city’s deeply layered past.

---

Conclusion

Cecil Headlam’s Oxford and Its Story achieves its core ideal: to use architecture and historical events to illustrate the city’s complex relationship with England’s national narrative. From the mythical beginnings refuted by Headlam to the definitive institutionalization achieved by Merton and Wykeham, the book provides an invaluable chronology of intellectual and societal conflict. It charts Oxford’s transformation from a volatile medieval town, plagued by riots and intellectual stagnation, through its pivotal role in the Reformation and Civil War, ultimately concluding with its modern renaissance. The detailed recounting of periods of intense patronage (Wolsey, Bodley, Laud) and subsequent decline (the 18th-century Jacobite era) ensures that the reader gains an insightful understanding not only of Oxford’s physical growth but also of its enduring, evolving influence on thought and State affairs.